نشریه پژوهش های فلسفی
پیاپی 38 (بهار 1401)

Cities are the essence of human civilization in the context of time, which today are the most important settlements of contemporary man. In this research, in line with this, the position of the city in Sadra's intellectual system has been explained and its role in reaching perfection has been studied. The city as a biological bed in this world is itself in the world of martyrdom. Man is created by the substantial motion of matter and in order to reach perfection he needs a biological bed in this world called the city. This brings to the fore the place of the city in Sadra's wisdom. This is also important in Arba'a travel. The city as a constrained being (according to the order of existence in Sadra's intellectual system) and a work of art created by the artist, provides a basis for understanding beauty. The presence of beauty in a space makes it possible to understand it. Understanding beauty also has different levels due to the simplicity of the concept of beauty. Understanding beauty moves the intellect. And this important premise creates a context for human perfection. Explaining the position of the city in Sadra's intellectual system can be considered as one of the important principles and achievements in this research. It could bring a new perspective on the study of citizenship rights and more specific issues in urban life in future studies.

The main purpose of this qualitative study is to visualize the philosophy program for children (p4c) in Iranian primary education (policy, strategies and practice). The secondary purpose is to examine the informational and practical experiences, perceptions and feelings of specialists and elementary teachers of the representation and possibility of implementing a philosophy program for children in primary education in Iran. The method of qualitative research is phenomenography . Data were collected over two weeks through one-on-one interviews with 8 experts and 13 teachers involved in the FBQ program. Findings in three three-level descriptive categories; Policy-making, strategies, and implementation constitute the outcome space. Most of the interviewees considered these three levels necessary in the implementation of the FBQ program. As a result, this study suggests that phenomenography can be used as an evaluation tool to identify policies, strategies, and practices and to describe their structural aspects, which may serve as the executive framework of the FBQ program from marginal to thematic core and its sensitivity. Move that has never been thought of before. As a result, identifying the above challenges at three descriptive levels in finding solutions and solving obstacles and problems, will facilitate the implementation process and help achieve the goals of the FBQ program in primary education.

In this article, we try to show that defamiliarization is basically a philosophical approach to phenomena, especially in the field of language, literature and poetry. In this regard, Derrida's deconstructive approach, as a difference, is more closely related to the concept of Shkolovsky unfamiliarity. Basically, our mentality is a matter of language, and in the meantime, poetry is the crystallization of this kind of mentality. Hence, it can be said that mentality is constructed in the context of language, and in the thinking of poststructuralists such as Barthes, Deleuze, Derrida, this construction is always formed in the form of language. What is particularly important about Derrida's difference and, more generally, about Shkolovsky's unfamiliarity with language, is that we can never say that we have reached the full meaning of a word or sentence or phrase, and so on. Meaning is never fully present in a world. However, in this article, we deal with deviations as defamiliarization in various forms, and suffice with one of these abnormalities, namely the phonetic type, and deal with examples of contemporary Iranian poets from the traditional and romantic spectrum in confirmation of this kind of abnormality. . The poets discussed in this article are Simin Behbahani, Malek e Shoaraye Bahar, Fereydoun Moshiri and Hamid Mossadegh.

In this article, we try to consider the concept of time or duaration of Deleuze in photomontage photography with reference to Francis Bacon's paintings. Deleuze discusses time using Bergson's philosophy of motion and duration. Philosophy is a work of art in the postmodernist view, it is anti-structuralist, and according to this issue, art cannot be considered a narrator, because art that is a narrator and is based on structure is a dead art. Deleuze's philosophy is neither subjective nor objective; He tells the story of the very presence and life in the world. For this reason, and based on his initial teachings and Hegelian's totalitarian ideas, he reduced the world and thought in the world to a single whole called the nature of life, and tried to put this totalitarian thought into thought. The gradual-evolutionary naturalistic experience blends. Jilles Deleuze tackles the issue of art from an anti-structuralist perspective. He examines the relationship between times in photomontage photography. We assume that concepts in photography have a motion-driven and creative role with the principle of being in photomontage. The main claim and finding of this article is that it can be said that Deleuze, by violating narrative and being in the art of photography, considers photomontage as a creative movement in fluidity that takes time and space. The most prominent English formalist painter is Francis Bacon. Bacon was able to express the modernist European perception and mentality in his works through visual language or figurative art. Our method in this research is descriptive and analytical. This research seeks to find the answer to the question of how to bring becoming into the art of photography and prevent its narrative and structure.

It is recognized by scholars that Mullā Sadrā has three philosophical journeys: Fundamentality of quiddity, Fundamentality of existence on gradational unite, and Fundamentality of existence on individual Unite; With this in mind, the issue of motion, an important issue in Sadra's wisdom, has changed as a result of these three journeys; In this regard, the belief of “Natural Motion” is commensurate with the first level, the belief of “Substantial Motion” is appropriate with the second level, and the belief of “Renewal of Likes” is commensurate with the third philosophical journey of Mullā Sadrā; Each of this three journeys has its requirements and causes the evolution of related issues. Addressing the above-mentioned issues, we have implicitly emphasized the longitudinal relationship between natural motion, substantial motion, and the renewal of the like, and their adherence to the longitudinal journey of Sadrā's wisdom.

Most physicalists believe that physicalism is a thesis that denies the existence of fundamental mentality either as a substance or as a property. Therefore, since most physicalists also endorse a posteriori physicalism, according to them, if the future physical theory posits fundamental mentality as a fundamental physical concept, then physicalism will be falsified. In contrast, there are those who believe that the core idea of physicalism is an ontological deference to science (especially physics); the idea that is usually called scientism and is closely related to methodological naturalism. According to them, if physicists posit fundamental mentality as an integral part of the future fundamental physical theory, physicalism will not be falsified, and physicalists may (or should) accept fundamental mentality as a genuine physical concept. In this paper, I argue that there is some historical evidence in support of the latter understanding of physicalism. First, I give some historical evidence that seems to suggest that the historical origin of physicalism is the failure of those explanations – or pseudo-explanations – that have appealed to supernatural non-physical entities. Second, I show that in some of the initial reflections on materialism – the predecessor of physicalism – in the first half of the twentieth century, philosophers understood materialism in terms of the very historical origin.

One of the topics in the philosophy of mind is the discussion of "I", which philosophers have referred to in various interpretations as "The self", "personal identity", "ego", "soul" and "spirit". Philosophers' different theories about the existence and even the nature of this seemingly simple and obvious have turned it into a philosophical problem. Galen Strawson is a physicalist who has addressed this issue by interpreting “The self”. On the one hand, he believes in the existence of the "empirical self", but on the other hand, he denies such qualities as Long-term persistence, personality, and agency, which seem to be essential to the meaning of the "I". The present paper tries to address, by an analythical-critical method, the question of how Strawson believed in the existence of the "I" despite the non-acceptance of these three characteristics. In this regard, first Strawson's view on the nature and existence of the "I" is analyzed, and after evaluating his view, it is concluded that the elimination of these three characteristics is due to weaknesses such as adopting a physicalist basis, a phenomenological method, and a purely mental view of the "I", confusion of the two positions of Truth and proof and his weakness in explaining the nature of unity over time.

This study compares and explains the explanation of revelation in minor matters and the role of the Prophet's imagination in this process from the perspective of Ibn Sina and Mulla Sadra. The research findings indicate that the source of revelation knowledge is active intellect (= angel of revelation); The teachings of the active intellect are general, and both philosophers have given an important role to the imagination of the prophet in explaining the quality of receiving the revelatory partial teachings. The role of imagination from Ibn Sina's point of view is to imitate and formulate general revelatory truths in the realm of the prophet's imagination. From Sadr al-Mutallahin's point of view, however, the represented forms of revelatory truths are present in the Imaginal World (= like Plato), and the imagination of the prophet is united with these forms represented in the Imaginal World. Although in some of Sadra's works, imitations and imaginative formulations of revelatory facts have been discussed, but according to the evidence in his works, this explanation is a well-known theory that he has only reported. The present study has used the library method in collecting information and the descriptive-analytical method in inference.

Global ethics is a need reminded to different researchers by the phenomenon of globalization. Meanwhile some scholars like the Catholic theologian Leonard Swidler seek to present the principles of the global ethics based on the common grounds of the religions (ecumenism). The current study has been conducted using a library-based analytic method in order to evaluate Swidler’s project of global ethics. To this end, the idea of the unity of religions is outlined and then Swidler’s theoretical foundations in his global ethics project as well as the principles presented by him in his second declaration are discussed. Finally, his project is criticized in the light of the presented principles and foundations and the following results are drawn: Swidler’s project of global ethics is of such advantages as paying attention to the responsibilities along with the rights, and the principles of human relations with the environment. Moreover, Swidler’s idea is significant in view of its being grounded in the effective interreligious dialogue as well as highlighting the role of religion in the global ethics. But his focus on the articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and his failure of explication of its relation with the common ethics of religions have caused him to get distanced from the ideal of unity of religions in his second declaration.

The corona virus has affected the lives of many people around the world and has caused physical, psychological, economic harm to human societies. Individuals' attitudes toward the sufferings and problems of those with the disease, and all sufferers in general at this time, are different, and this difference is due to differences in the views in confronting with others. According to Kant's philosophy of ethics, moral judgment is independent of any evaluation and is opposed to Consequentialism. According to Kant, the will of man as a rational being is a moral factor and the source of necessary law. According to Kant's duty-oriented approach, the moral act is merely to act with the motive of duty, and other motives have no place in it. From the perspective of Levinas, on the other hand, morality challenges the subject's spontaneity in confronting with the epiphany of the "other" face. The foundation of morality is in confronting with the "other" and involves infinite responsibility. Man's compassion for others is rooted in his infinite and asymmetrical responsibility to "the other." Kant's moral duty and responsibility for Levinas in the face of coronary suffering has its own effects, implications, and consequences.

The main issue of this article is how to harmonize determinism and moral responsibility (the classic problem of free will) by reconsidering the philosophy of Avicenna. Certainly, Avicenna believes in determinism and in various works has emphasized the necessity of the effect by its sufficient cause. Avicenna, on the other hand, certainly believes in the moral responsibility of autonomous agents, including human beings. We have shown in the first step that he denies free will in the libertarian sense (the ability to do otherwise) for any agents; Because this notion of free will requires objective possibilities and is not compatible with causal determinism. Avicenna has identified a new type of voluntary agent who does not need to have an over-intentional intention to do something. Here, he looks very similar to proponents of agent causation; His idea, however, was not intended to defend a libertarian notion of free will, but to get rid of the challenge of the infinite regress of wills. Hence, Avicenna can be considered one of the few proponents of the "compatibilist agent causation." In the second step, an overview of Avicenna's theory of action is drawn. Here, in particular, emphasis is placed on the activity of the soul in the stages of the causal process leading to action, and the quality of these activities is introduced as a criterion for the morality degree of the agent..

According to Islamic philosophy especially Mulla-Sadra’s wisdom, it is considered three forms of being for human in accordance with three realms: matter, imagination and intellect. In each of these, mankind has different kind of cognition and deed. But also some of perceptions and deeds is accounted to the heart. Three different views about the heart and its relation to the intellect are found among Muslim philosophers and mystics. In the present study, according to Allameh Tabataba’i’s reading of Sadra’s transcendent wisdom, “heart” is introduced as the virtual metaphor of the soul or the very truth of man, which is above all three areas of human existence. From the viewpoint of Allameh Tabataba’i, perception of beauty is a kind of presential knowledge and has a direct relationship with the heart, and consequently affects it. Therefore, he considers an important role for beauty and adornment in human life and considers it necessary for human social life. He considers man's attention to beauty according to his powers and needs and as a result of divine inspiration so that the aesthetic view has a great impact on the completion of human existence and describes art and literature as one of the most important constructional perceptions of every society.

Reason, which is one of the sources of knowledge, is divided into theoretical and practical; There is no difference in the existence of theoretical intellect and its role in the perception of generalities. But there is a difference in the fact that practical intellect has an existence independent of theoretical intellect and is evidence; Some philosophers deny the existence of practical reason independent of theoretical reason and some believe in it; The second group, some deny the perceptual dimension and some believe in evidence of its partiality. Considering the appearance of Mulla Sadra's expressions, it seems at first that he considers the existence of practical intellect to be independent of theoretical intellect by two criteria (separation and contradictory existential verbs) and because of documents such concepts as inference, thought, Troy, conjecture. And inspiration (belief, and judgment), which are associated with perception, attribute partial perception to it. However, in this paper, we came to this conclusion by descriptive-analytical method after minor (not cobra) damage in the two mentioned criteria and considering that all types of partial perceptions have appropriate powers (such as sense, imagination and delusion). That neither practical intellect has an existence independent of theoretical intellect nor can a partial perception be invoked to it, and therefore we should consider Mulla Sadra to be of the same view.

Although Bakhtin and Hegel's ideas are not very clearly related at first glance, and especially since Bakhtin is critical of Hegel and his dialectical method in his explicit statements, yet, Bakhtin's principles let us have an intertextual reading of his texts and his dialogism, as a framework of his thought, based on Hegel's dialectic. This intertextual reading consists of three parts: In the first part, the dialectical moments, which are "in-itself", "for-itself", and "in-and-for-itself" are identified in Bakhtin's dialogism. The second part is devoted to a review of Bakhtin's dialogism with the help of the logical concepts of "universal", "particular", and "individual" from Hegel's philosophy. In the third part, Bakhtin's claim that Hegel's dialectic is monologic is examined. As a result of this intertextual reading, although Bakhtin's hidden dialogue with Hegel is revealed, this dialogue does not yet mean that his thought is in complete agreement with Hegel's..

According to Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, propositions of natural science are all meaningful propositions of language therefore there is no ethical proposition because alleged ones do not fulfil the criterion of meaningfulness of propositions, which is empirical verifiability. In addition, Wittgenstein somewhere considers Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus to have an important ethical point. There seems to be a conflict between Wittgenstein's recent claim, on the one hand, and the meaninglessness of ethics, on the other. In the face of this apparent conflict, we try to ponder the question of what is the ethical point of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. In answer to this question, we will pay attention to Kevin Cahill's interpretation of Wittgenstein. In Wittgenstein's view, modern culture prevents what he calls the experience of the wonder of the world. Cahill interprets the ethical point of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in connection with Wittgenstein's view on modern culture. What objection would Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus be subject to if Cahill's interpretation were correct? How defensible is the dependence of Cahill's interpretation of Tractatus on other Wittgenstein's works? At the end of our study, we will answer these questions.

As a Wittgensteinian fideist, Phillip’s approach to the epistemology of religious propositions is different from Wittgenstein’s approach. In this paper, first through description and analysis of Philips’s approach to three concept and problem of non-realism, the way of life and theory of language games it has been showed that he takes internalist approach to those concepts and problems which is contrary to Wittgenstein’s externalist and contextualist approach, though his internalist approach is a moderate internalism. His moderate internalism has its roots in his distinction between the meaningfulness and and justification religious beliefs and reducing justification religious beliefs to language games. Besides that, he considers the religious way of life different from other ways of life. Our critical review of his approach shows that his absolute distinction between meaningfulness and justification of religious beliefs is a problematic distinction.

The term of Ethos was first appeared in the 5th century BC, meaning "nature", "habit" and "custom", in the character of heroes. This term gradually found its place in the views of philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle on moral advice aimed at encouraging the socialization of individuals. Aristotle called artists to observe virtue in their works and called such artists ethographer. The Aristotelian ethographos Art is not only used as a criterion for art criticism, but also leads to the unity between the visual and non-visual arts, and in this way, the artist can communicate and influence the audience and allow them to recognize different perspectives. The ethographos Art transcends the function of art beyond the limited scope of subject-object and gives it a role with a social function, and then, vitalize to its material environment and makes possible the understanding of the unattainable concepts of ontology, both in the spatial and human dimensions, and leads to a general agreement.

Part of Cornel West's prophetic pragmatism purpose is to link ethics and politics to art. In this approach, ethics becomes the basis of aesthetics and politics. He presents a picture of moral life that emphasizes the uniqueness of human characteristics. His goal of prophetic pragmatism is not to answer the questions of Western philosophy. West sees the root of these problems in Western philosophy in the epistemology of Descartes and Kant and believes that it must be overcome. The purpose of prophetic pragmatism is to provide answers to short-term problems and ongoing cultural interpretations in a specific historical period. West sees nihilism as evil, as opposed to democracy, and turns to art to combat this nihilism. He believes that original art has a common concern with the oppressed and can fight nihilism. He considers this original art to have anti-nihilistic properties. Artists in this approach are struggling to achieve democracy and must follow ethics based on religious love. In this article, after examining the relationship between politics and ethics in art, we critique West's views.

According to Tarski's model-theoretic analysis of logical consequence, the sentence X is a logical consequence of a set of sentences Γ if and only if any model for Γ is also a model for X. Etchemendy, however, does not accept the analysis and critiques it. According to Etchemendy, Tarski’s analysis 1- involves a conceptual mistake: confusing the symptoms of logical consequence with their cause; 2- cannot properly explain the necessity of logical consequence; 3- faces the problem of overgeneration; and 4- faces the problem of undergeneration. In the present article, by evaluating these critiques and examining the effectiveness of some of the answers presented in defense of Tarski's analysis, we try to show that among these critiques, only the problem of undergeneration is not acceptable. According to our common sense understanding, if an argument is valid, it is truth-preserving, and by assuming the truth of the premises, the conclusion will be true as well. But it does not mean that we can reduce the logical consequence relation to truth preservation. This flaw leads Tarski’s analysis to be an unacceptable analysis of logical consequence.

Life-world, means the world as it is experienced and lived, is a concept that was first born in Husserl's phenomenology and later used in various fields. Alfred Schutz, the founder of phenomenological sociology, who sought to establish a theoretical basis for interpretive sociology, applied the concept to study of mental structures in everyday life and used it in sociology. The present article seeks to answer the question, what changes did life-world undergo in Schutz's thought. The result of this study shows that Schutz establishes a dialectical relationship between individual consciousness and life-world, in such a way that each constructs and influences the other. Unlike Husserl, who saw life-world as the only comprehensible reality, he referred to the multiple layers of reality and considered Husserl's term transcendence appropriate for rotation between these layers, while Husserl used “transcendence” only to awareness of another experience. In addition, Schutz does not consider transcendental phenomenology as a proper basis for the social sciences, and instead of the transcendental ego, he uses the mundane ego for his plan.

As we know, one of the most important theories concerning the relation between religion and Morality belongs to Immanuel Kant. In this paper, after presenting some of the outstanding ideas on the relation between religion and morality, we introduce Kant’s theory. In first stage, his distinction between revealed religion and historical religion and his interpretation of religion makes it difficult to find his own creative view. Finally it will be known that the relation between Kantian morality and revealed religion is a non-historical one; they are two distinguished things and have no same origin. But through rational interpretation of revealed religion they could be compatible. But if his morality examined by the religion of they would be dual, each one has a separate origin and finally, the religion of practical reason would be depended on morality. In kants opus postumum, God is the same as practical reason and moral perfection and real happiness which is the prefect manifestation of practical reason in phenomenal realm, could be achieved in the moral commonwealth society.

The ethical and political thinking of Axel Honneth—German philosopher and leading scholar in the third generation of Frankfurt School Critical Theorists—has garnered considerable attention since his seminal Struggle for Recognition. In his writings, Honneth seeks to demonstrate a new outlook for the relationship between the I, the Other, and We: a scheme in which the I and the Other would not be that of assimilation—but a peaceful We, while at the same time preserving their different value systems and identities. This was done by way of a three-tiered model of mutual recognition for understanding societal relations. On the other hand, Honneth’s theory has been criticized by critics such as Fraser and Pensky as Eurocentric, the implied normative superiority of which renders Honneth’s ethical theory prone to the exclusion of the “other” which he so adamantly seeks to affirm. This paper examines the extent to whichHonneth’s response to such critiques liberates his theory from its purported exclusionary and unethical orientation. Neither side of the debate, however, seems to put forth a final formulation of the relationship between the I and the We. In this vein, this research proposes a concretized account of recognition, necessitating, in turn, an interculturaland dialogical approach to this theory.

Dewey's book "Art as Experience", can be considered as a manifesto of pragmatist aesthetics, in which Dewey uses the insights of Darwinian theory of evolution and his pragmatist principles through focusing on the concept of "experience" and aesthetic experience, to bring art back to the everyday life of human beings in today's world. Although, Dewey's view of experience in its general sense, as an interaction between human and his/her environment, has a Darwinian basis, but as Dewey's analysis shows, especially in his describing about the aesthetic experience, the concept of experience goes beyond the Darwinian conception and takes cultural and social dimensions. In this article, meanwhile reviewing the meaning of experience in Dewey's thinking and the relationship between aesthetic experience and the experience in its general sense, we try to show the connection between art and life by relying on Dewey's views in "Art as Experience". In addition, we attempt to demonstrate, most of the examples that Dewey cites as the basis of aesthetic experiences are positive life experiences, and by doing so, he unintentionality ignores negative experiences and reduces the circle of aesthetic experience to pleasant experiences.

The main question of this article is that what are the important differences or similarities between Aristotle's and Frege's analysis of the categorical proposition? Based on the famous view, Aristotle analyzes the categorical proposition into three components: Subject, Predicate and Relation; while Frege analyzes the categorical proposition into two components of Variable and Function, and therefore; these two analyses are completely different and there is no similarity between them. In the other article, I have argued that in the Aristotle's viewpoint, in the logical analysis of the categorical proposition, against its linguistic analysis, it is divided into two main components of subject and predicate. At this article, I have shown that by accepting of this analysis and based on it, it becomes clear that: firstly, there are important similarities between these two analyses: 1) both are two-part analyses 2) Aristotle, like Frege, considers «to be attributed to something else» to be the essential feature of the predicate part; Secondly, there are important differences between them: 1) Aristotle considers «to be attributed to something else» to be merely the essential property of the Role of Predicate, but Frege considers it to be also the essential property of general concepts that replaces in this role, and therefore 2) Frege, against Aristotle, maintains that general concepts cannot be the subject of propositions. This viewpoint of Frege is based on the «Fundamental distinction between Object and Concept». Therefore the root of the differences between the two analyses should be sought in this assertion..

"Certainty" occupies an important place in Wittgenstein’s epistemology: it does not belong to the category of knowledge but constitutes its foundation. In his view, knowledge boils down to language games, and language games are based on indubitable certainties. According to Wittgenstein, scepticism is meaningless, and if there is no certainty, then even doubt would be meaningless. Wittgesntein maintains that [relative] doubt and knowledge are epistemic categories, whereas absolute doubt and certainty are non-epistemic categories. Epistemic categories are meaningful and when expressed by means of statements could be either true or false. In contrast, non-epistemic categories are meaningless and when expressed by means of statements the properties of truth and falsehood do not apply to them. The aim of the present paper is two fold: 1- Providing an explanation of the status of certainty in comparison to categories such as doubt and knowledge in Wittgenstein’s thought; 2- Providing a critical assessment of Wittgenstein's approach to certainty through the prism of critical rationalism. The main arguments of the paper are as follows: 1. Although Wittgenstein considers certainty to be meaningless and therefore not on a par with epistemological categories, he regards it as an objective concept that functions as the foundation upon which all human knowledge is based; 2. Wittgenstein's efforts to show the objectivity of certainty have not been entirely successful, partly due to his reliance on a defective notion of ‘objectivity’ and partly as a result of the prominence he assigns to the category of ‘meaning’ at the expense of the category of ‘truth’.

This paper seeks to analyse the concept of atmosphere in the philosophical system of Hermann Schmitz, the founder of New Phenomenology, as a fundamental concept for understanding his philosophical system; he uses this concept to transcend the duality of subject-object as well as to show the hidden realities and the foundations of lived experience of reality, by looking at how phenomenological analysis is revealed. Beside being used in sciences such as physics, meteorology, and psychology, the term also refers to the atmosphere as a concrete phenomenon; it is also an evidence of his understanding the phenomenology and reformulating it. This paper aims to show the connection between the concept of the felt-body (Leib), as the theoretical core of his work, and space and emotion as other key concepts in his philosophical system, by using the structural analysis of the concept and the phenomen of atmosphere.The result of the analysis in this paper shows the special place of the concept of atmosphere in Schmitz's philosophical system and its prominent role in establishing his method of New Phenomenology.

"Myth" is, in the view of the great Neo-Kantianism philosopher Ernest Cassirer, the most primitive and at the same time the most different human methodological method. According to him, in order to be aware of his existence and his surroundings, man has not started from the rational form of cognition at once, and before that, he has led a long period with elementary knowledge, which is the initial form of human knowledge called "mythical consciousness". is introduced to us. Perceptions and the world formed in this form of consciousness have contents and characteristics that are not easy to understand and accept by today's standards of theoretical knowledge; Therefore, these contents should be studied in the context of mythological system. In mythological consciousness, categories such as "space", "time" and "number", like today's rational consciousness, are introduced to us as "perceptual mediators"; But the nature, function, and embodiment of these intermediaries are in the consciousness of myths quite different from our perception of them today. The main issue in this research is to identify the nature of the "mythical number" and the sources that identify it. To achieve this goal, by carefully studying the works and views of Cassirer, in addition to identifying the nature, position and type of number representation in mythical consciousness, the factors that shape the specific nature of number in this form of consciousness are examined.

With the arrival of the modern era in west civilization and with major changes took place in the social, ‎cultural, artistic, and other fields. The effects of this trend in the field of art are visible as one of the concepts ‎of the new era with the emergence of fine art in the 18th century. Following the changes in the West, different ‎theorists have expressed many different critical views on the fine arts. Among the theorists who have presented ‎critical views about these modern times, especially about the fine arts is Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr who ‎presents his critical views about fine arts, architecture, poetry etc. and then expressed his opinions about this different type of Arts. He criticized and reviewed fine arts from a traditionalism ‎position. In this paper [article], Nasr's view of the concept of fine arts, the way these arts emerge, its cultural ‎and content characteristics have been studied. According to Dr. Seyed Hossein Nasr, the art of this era, on the ‎one hand, reflects western culture and its crises, and on the other hand, has played a significant role in ‎creating a new cultural space and the art itself has become a decorative object, which has separated art from ‎its traditional trend. The research method of this article is descriptive and analytical and the tool for ‎collecting information is library‏.‏

This article aims to show that Spinoza proposes a universal religion, whose essence structurally is faith and functionally is to worship by practicing justice and charity to others. Since Spinoza’s politics is in favor of a democratic state, we must make an effort to understand the contribution of both politics and religion to the aim of democratization. Yet, Spinoza’s critique of theocracy should not make his readers question his ideas concerning the maintenance of the relationship between politics and religion, because, from the beginning of chapter nineteen of the TTP, he had planned to add considerations on the limits of religious authority. We will see Spinoza deal with religion as an indispensable part of society, which is simultaneously a subordinate of politics. In addition, we will find that it is not cost-effective if political systems would be based on a specific religious sect. He held that the separation of political and religious authorities will not be so easy to achieve or to affect a peaceful coexistence of good willing believers and the state‏.‏

Al-Farabi is the earliest and the most important political philosopher in the Islamic world and the founder of the idea of Excellent City; meanwhile, he rarely mentions anything on household management in his political writings. In his few references about gender, women, and household, we face incoherence statements which are swing between misogyny and belief of equality between men and women. He also uses some gendered concepts in his metaphysical thoughts about material and form but still does not mention the inferiority of women in creation. Some scholars try to reconstruct his Idea about household management according to the structure of his "excellent city" and self, but others interpreted his silence as a sign of his fear of different kinds of authorities. In this article, I indicate that his fragments and contradicts statements about the household are the proofs that show the household management is a problematic issue to him‏.‏

Michel Foucault is well-known as a contemporary representative of counter-Enlightenment. His analyses bring to light finely a self-deception committed by social and political institutions inherited from Enlightenment which, in spite of their progressive, more humane self-image, facilitate domination and subjugation more than before. Based on some hints from Rorty, Habermas and Walzer, I would show that Foucault’s analyses presuppose some crypto-normativity, despite his persistent refusal of using such normative concepts as truth, emancipation, reform and progress. In his work, the concept of ‘power’ is constantly fluctuating between two meanings: neutral, descriptive on the one hand, and pejorative, normative on the other hand. Foucault’s fear of being bounded to a specific position subjected unconsciously to a ubiquitous power, related to first meaning, prevents him from making an invidious distinction between emancipatory and authoritative aspects of social and political disciplinary institutions. I would argue that this ambiguity of power concept makes him biased towards emancipatory contribution of Enlightenment.‏

The issue of necessity is one of the most important aspects of Hegel's philosophy. The meaning of necessity per se or necessity alone is not discussed here, but here we consider only the two constraints used in Hegel's expressions for necessity. The subject of discussion, accordingly, is the two words used in Hegel's statements, namely external and internal necessity. In the first stage, this article deals with the external and internal necessity. In the second stage, it explains the relationship between the two. Then in the third stage we discuss the relationship between these two types of necessity and Hegel's science or philosophical system, and finally in the fourth step, an attempt is made to critique and evaluate this relationship.‏